e-Learning and the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia (5th edition)

Part 1 Foundations of e-Learning and the Science of Instruction

Chapter 1 e-Learning: Promise and Pitfalls

• What Is e-Learning?
• Synchronous and Asynchronous e-Learning
• Six e-Learning Formats
• The Evolution of e-Learning for Training
• Is e-Learning Better?
• The Promise of e-Learning
  • Promise 1: Rich Multimedia
  • Promise 2: Customization
  • Promise 3: Engagement and Feedback
  • Promise 4: Acceleration of Expertise Through Scenarios
  • Promise 5: Collaborative Learning
• The Pitfalls of e-Learning
  • Pitfall 1: Too Much of a Good Thing
  • Pitfall 2: Not Enough of a Good Thing
  • Pitfall 3: Misplaced Training
  • Pitfall 4: Technology Fads
• e-Learning Architectures

Chapter 2 How People Learn from e-Courses

• How Do People Learn?
• Taking a Learner-Centered Approach to Learning with Technology
• What Is Learning and Instruction?
• Three Metaphors for Learning
• Principles and Processes of Learning
• Guiding the Learner’s Cognitive Processing During Learning
  • Selecting Information
  • Organizing Information
  • Integrating Information
• Core Goals for Instructional Design in e-Learning
  • Minimize Extraneous Processing
  • Manage Essential Processing
  • Foster Generative Processing
• How e-Lessons Affect Learning
  • Methods for Helping Learners Focus on Important Information During e-Learning
  • Methods for Helping Learners Cope with Limited Capacity in Working Memory
  • Methods for Helping Learners Make Sense of the Presented Material
  • Methods for Helping Learners Develop Positive Feelings and Social Connections
  • Methods for Helping Learners Prepare for Retrieval and Transfer
• Summary of Learning Processes
• What We Don’t Know About Learning

Chapter 3 Evidence-Based Practice

• What Is Evidence-Based Practice?
• Rationale for Evidence-Based Practice
• Three Approaches to Research on Instructional Effectiveness
• What to Look for in Experimental Comparisons
  • Random Assignment
  • Experimental Control
  • Appropriate Measures
  • Supplemental Criteria
• What Are Boundary Conditions?
• What Is a Meta-Analysis?
• Limits of Experimental Research
• Where Can You Find Relevant Research?
• The Evolution of Evidence-Based Practice
• What We Don’t Know About Evidence-Based Practice

Part 2 How to Leverage Visuals and Words in e-Learning

Chapter 4 Applying the Multimedia Principle: Use Words and Graphics Rather than Words Alone

• Do Visuals Make a Difference?
• Multimedia Principle: Include Both Words and Graphics
• Why Use Words and Graphics?
• Select Graphics that Support Learning
• Some Ways to Use Graphics to Promote Learning
  • Graphics as Content Organizers
  • Graphics to Show Quantitative Relationships
  • Graphics as Lesson Interfaces
• Psychological Reasons for the Multimedia Principle
• Evidence for Using Words and Pictures
• The Multimedia Principle Is Resilient
• Learners Often Misjudge the Value of Graphics
• The Multimedia Principle Works Best for Novices
• Should You Change Static Illustrations into Animations?
• When to Use Animations
  • Use Animations to Illustrate Complex Visual Changes
  • Use Animations to Demonstrate Hands-On Procedures
  • Use Animations as Interpretive Graphics
  • Animations: The Bottom Line
• How to Optimize Learning from Graphics
• Lesson-Focused Methods
• Learner-Focused Methods
• What We Don’t Know About Visuals

Chapter 5 Applying the Contiguity Principle: Align Words to Corresponding Graphics

• Spatial Contiguity Principle: Place Printed Words near Corresponding Graphics
• Violations of Spatial Contiguity
• Placing Text Caption Below Corresponding Graphic
• Placing a Legend Under or to the Side of Corresponding Chart
• Separating Text and Graphic on Scrolling Screens
• Displaying Feedback on a Separate Screen from Questions or Responses
• Displaying Linked Windows on Top of Corresponding Content
• Displaying Exercise Directions Separate from the Exercise
• Displaying Text in a Separate Window with Animations or Video
• Psychological Reasons for the Spatial Contiguity Principle
• Evidence for the Spatial Contiguity Principle
• Meta-Analytic Evidence
• Eye Tracking Evidence
• Boundary Conditions for Spatial Contiguity
• Spatial Contiguity and Visual Cues
• Promoting Spatial Contiguity with Augmented Reality
• Temporal Contiguity Principle: Synchronize Spoken Words with Corresponding Graphics
• Separating Graphics and Narration Through Icons
• Separating Graphics and Narration in a Continuous Presentation
• Psychological Reasons for the Temporal Contiguity Principle
• Evidence for the Temporal Contiguity Principle
• Core Evidence
• Boundary Conditions for Temporal Contiguity
• Exceptions to Temporal Contiguity

Chapter 6 Applying the Signaling Principle: Use Verbal and Visual Cues to Direct Attention

• What Is Signaling?
• How Does Signaling Work?
• Eye Tracking and Attention
• Evidence for the Benefits of Signaling
• Principle 1: Use Text Summaries and Headers to Signal Learning Content
• Principle 2: Use Text Phrases to Explicitly Direct Attention to Relevant Content
• Principle 3: Use Emphasis Cues Such as Color and Intonation
• Principle 4: Use Graphic Cues Such as Arrows and Pointers
• Principle 5: Use Anti-Cueing in Animations to Signal Less Salient Visual Elements in Animations
• Signaling: The Bottom Line

Chapter 7 Applying the Modality Principle: Present Words as Audio Narration Rather Than On-Screen Text

• Modality Principle: Present Words as Speech Rather Than On-Screen Text
• Psychological Reasons for the Modality Principle
• Evidence for Using Spoken Rather Than Printed Text
• Evidence from a Naturalistic Setting
• Eye Tracking Evidence
• Meta-Analytic Evidence
• When Audio Is Not Effective: Boundary Conditions for the Modality Principle
• Use Printed Text for Second-Language Learners
• Use Printed Text When Explanations Are Lengthy and Complex
• Use Printed Text When the Instruction Is Self-Paced
• Use Printed Text for Recognition or Recall Learning Rather Than Transfer
• Use Printed Text When Learners Need Access to Content over Time
• Summary of Boundary Conditions for the Modality Principle

Chapter 8 When to Add Text to Audio Narration: Applying the Redundancy Principle

• What Is the Redundancy Principle?
• Psychological Reasons for the Redundancy Principle
• Evidence for Omitting Redundant On-Screen Text
• Add On-Screen Text to Narration in Special Situations
• Add On-Screen Text for Learning in a Second Language or When Words Are Unfamiliar
• Add On-Screen Text That Includes Only a Few Key Words from the Audio Narration
• Add On-Screen Text When Learners Have Plenty of Cognitive Resources Available
• Add On-Screen Text When There Are No Graphics
• The Bottom Line

Chapter 9 Applying the Coherence Principle: Adding Extra Material Can Hurt Learning

• Principle 1: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Words
• Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Words in e-Learning
• Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Interest
• Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added to Expand on Key Ideas
• Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Technical Depth
• Principle 2: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Graphics
• Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Graphics in e-Learning
• Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Graphics Added for Interest
• Meta-Analytic Evidence
• Boundary Conditions for Seductive Details
• Evidence for Using Simpler Visuals
• Can Interesting Graphics Ever Be Helpful? Guidelines for Emotional Design
• What Is Emotional Design?
• Principle 3: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Audio
• Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Audio in e-Learning
• Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Audio
• Evidence Against Background Music
• Evidence Against Environmental Sounds

Part 3 How to Promote Skill Building in e-Learning

Chapter 10 Engagement in e-Learning: Activities for Promoting Generative Learning

• What Is Engagement?
• Engagement and Generative Processing
• Behavioral Versus Psychological Engagement
• When Behavioral Engagement Impedes Learning
• When an Activity Imposes Too Much Extraneous Mental Load
• When an Activity Results in Inaccurate Learner Representations
• When an Activity Promotes Shallow Processing of Lesson Content
• Three Engagement Activities That Can Promote Generative Processing
• Self-Explanation Assignments
• Teach-Back Assignments
• Drawing Assignments
• The Bottom Line to Engagement in e-Learning

Chapter 11 Leveraging Examples in e-Learning

• What Is Example-Based Instruction?
• Examples for Procedural and Strategic Tasks
• Modeling Examples for Procedural and Strategic Skills
• The Psychology of Example-Based Instruction
• Evidence for the Benefits of Example-Based Instruction
• How to Optimize the Benefits of Example-Based Instruction
• Principle 1: Provide at Least Two Examples When the Lesson Content Is Complex
• Principle 2: Promote Accurate Self-Explanations
• Principle 3: Fade from Examples to Problems as Expertise Builds
• Principle 4: Apply Multimedia Principles to Examples
• Principle 5: Consider Using Video Examples for Complex Tasks
• Principle 6: Optimize Example-Based Instruction for Strategic Tasks

Chapter 12 Does Practice Make Perfect?

• What Is Practice in e-Learning?
• Formats of e-Learning Practice
• Is Practice a Good Investment?
• Meta-Analysis of Multimedia Practice
• Practice Among Elite Performers
• Principle 1: Add Sufficient Practice Interactions to Achieve the Objective
• The Benefits of Practice
• Adjust the Amount of Practice Based on Task Criticality
• Principle 2: Make Sure Practice Mirrors the Job
• Principle 3: Provide Effective Feedback on Practice Performance
• Provide Explanatory Feedback
• Evidence for Benefits of Explanatory Feedback
• Emphasize Three Categories of Explanatory Feedback
• Written Versus Audio Versus Video Feedback
• Should Feedback Be Immediate or Delayed?
• Create Multiple-Try Feedback That Promotes Generative Processing
• Tips for Implementing Feedback
• Principle 4: Distribute and Mix Practice Among Learning Events
• Distribute Practice Throughout the Learning Environment
• Mix Practice Types in Lessons
• Tips for Determining the Number and Placement of Practice Events
• Principle 5: Arrange Practice That Increases in Challenge as Learners Progress
• Principle 6: Provide Scaffolding to Support Guided Practice When Needed
• Principle 7: Apply Multimedia Principles in Designing Feedback
• Modality and Redundancy Principles
• Contiguity Principle
• Coherence Principle
• Tips for Applying the Multimedia Principles to Your Interactions
• What We Don’t Know About Practice

Part 4 How to Organize Content in e-Learning

Chapter 13 Organizing Instruction: Applying the Segmenting and Pre-training Principles

• What Is the Segmenting Principle?
• Segmenting a Continuous Presentation into Learner-Paced Parts
• Segmenting with Slide Overlays
• Segmenting with Briefer Audio
• Segmenting in Instructor-Paced e-Learning
• Segmenting in Video and Animated Self-Study Lessons
• What Is the Pretraining Principle?
• Pretraining for a Continuous Animation, Video, or Slide Show
• Pretraining in Immersive Learning Environments
• Use Pretraining for Software Interface Orientations
• Psychological Reasons for the Pretraining Principle
• Should You Initiate a Lesson with a Problem Assignment?
• Managing Essential Overload

Chapter 14 Who’s in Control?: Guidelines for e-Learning Navigation

• Learner Control Versus Program Control
• Three Categories of Learner Control
• Tradeoffs to Learner Control
• Do Learners Make Good Instructional Decisions?
• Calibration Accuracy: Do You Know What You Think You Know?
• How Does Calibration Affect Learning?
• How Common Is Overconfidence Among Learners?
• Do Learners Like Instructional Methods That Lead to Learning?
• The Psychology of Learner Decisions
• Learner Control and Metacognitive Accuracy
• Four Principles for Learner Control in e-Learning
• Principle 1: Give Experienced Learners Control
• Principle 2: Make Important Instructional Events the Default
• Principle 3: Give Pacing Control to All Learners
• Principle 4: Provide Guidance in Open-Ended e-Learning Environments
• The Bottom Line

Part 5 How to Leverage Social Cues in e-Learning

Chapter 15 Applying the Personalization Principle: Use Conversational Style, Polite Wording, Friendly Voice, On-Screen Agents, and Social Presence in e-Learning

• Personalization Principle 1: Use Conversational Rather Than Formal Style
• Psychological Reasons for the Personalization Principle
• Evidence for Using a Conversational Style
• Personalization Principle 2: Use Polite Wording
• Evidence for Use of Polite Language
• Personalization Principle 3: Use a Friendly Human Voice Quality for Narrations
• Evidence for the Use of Friendly Human Voice
• Can On-Screen Agents Promote Learning in Asynchronous e-Learning?
• What Are Pedagogical Agents?
• The Psychology of Pedagogical Agents
• Can Agents Promote Learning?
• What Actions Should Agents Perform?
• Do Agents Need to Look Real?
• Do Agents Need to Sound Real?
• How Can Instructors in Video Lessons Leverage Personalization?

Chapter 16 Online Collaborative Learning

• What Is Collaborative Learning?
• The Psychology of Collaborative Learning
• What Is Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)?
• Principle 1: Design Tasks and Team Assignments to Foster Interdependence
• Assign Complex Tasks
• Promote Diverse Relevant Expertise Among Team Members
• Principle 2: Optimize Group Size, Prior Knowledge, and Collaboration Experience
• Principle 3: Consider Tradeoffs Between Synchronous and Asynchronous Collaboration
• Principle 4: Maximize Social Presence in Online Collaborative Environments
• Principle 5: Use Scripts to Optimize Team Outcomes

Part 6 Special Applications of e-Learning

Chapter 17 e-Learning to Build Thinking Skills

• What Are Thinking Skills?
• What to Teach: Focused Target Skills Versus Improving the Mind in General
• Where to Teach: Domain-General Versus Domain-Specific Thinking Skills
• How to Teach: Expert Modeling with Learner Practice Versus Direct Instruction
• Can Thinking Skills Be Trained?
• Principle 1: Build Explicit Instruction to Teach Specific Job-Relevant Thinking Skills
• Display Expert Thinking Models
• Signal Behaviors of Expert Models to Focus Learner Attention
• Promote Active Engagement with Expert Models
• Principle 2: Incorporate Online Simulations of Authentic Work Scenarios
• Are Simulations Effective for Building Thinking Skills?
• Which Features Make Simulations Effective for Learning?
• Are Scaffolds Needed in Simulations?
• Cost-Benefit Analysis of Simulations
• Principle 3: Identify Job-Specific Thinking Processes
• Teaching Thinking Skills: The Bottom Line

Chapter 18 Designing Effective Instructional Video

• The Challenge of Instructional Video
• Historical Foundations of Instructional Video
• Uses of Instructional Video
• Principle 1: Record a Demonstration Video from a First-Person Perspective
• Principle 2: Have the Instructor Draw on the Board While Lecturing
• Principle 3: Embed Generative Activities During Breaks in the Video
• Principle 4: Add Subtitles for Learning in a Second Language
• Principle 5: Have the Instructor Exhibit Positive Voice and Gestures
• Principle 6: Have the Instructor Use Pointing and Eye Gaze to Direct Attention
• Principle 7: Avoid Overuse of Talking Heads or Static Instructor Images
• Principle 8: Apply Multimedia Design Principles

Chapter 19 Learning with Computer Games

Chapter 20 Immersive Virtual Reality for Instruction